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Microprocessor - Wikipedia. This article is about microprocessors. For Central processing unit, see CPU. Microprocessors contain both combinational logic and sequential digital logic.
A microprocessor is a computer processor which incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC), or at.
Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented in the binary numeral system. The integration of a whole CPU onto a single chip or on a few chips greatly reduced the cost of processing power, increasing efficiency. Integrated circuit processors are produced in large numbers by highly automated processes resulting in a low per unit cost.
Single- chip processors increase reliability as there are many fewer electrical connections to fail. As microprocessor designs get better, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same. Before microprocessors, small computers had been built using racks of circuit boards with many medium- and small- scale integrated circuits . Microprocessors combined this into one or a few large- scale ICs. Continued increases in microprocessor capacity have since rendered other forms of computers almost completely obsolete (see history of computing hardware), with one or more microprocessors used in everything from the smallest embedded systems and handheld devices to the largest mainframes and supercomputers.
Structure. The complexity of an integrated circuit (IC) is bounded by physical limitations of the number of transistors that can be put onto one chip, the number of package terminations that can connect the processor to other parts of the system, the number of interconnections it is possible to make on the chip, and the heat that the chip can dissipate. Advancing technology makes more complex and powerful chips feasible to manufacture. A minimal hypothetical microprocessor might only include an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and a control logic section. The ALU performs operations such as addition, subtraction, and operations such as AND or OR. Each operation of the ALU sets one or more flags in a status register, which indicate the results of the last operation (zero value, negative number, overflow, or others). The control logic retrieves instruction codes from memory and initiates the sequence of operations required for the ALU to carry out the instruction.
A single operation code might affect many individual data paths, registers, and other elements of the processor. As integrated circuit technology advanced, it was feasible to manufacture more and more complex processors on a single chip.
The size of data objects became larger; allowing more transistors on a chip allowed word sizes to increase from 4- and 8- bit words up to today's 6. Additional features were added to the processor architecture; more on- chip registers sped up programs, and complex instructions could be used to make more compact programs. Floating- point arithmetic, for example, was often not available on 8- bit microprocessors, but had to be carried out in software. Integration of the floating point unit first as a separate integrated circuit and then as part of the same microprocessor chip, sped up floating point calculations.
Occasionally, physical limitations of integrated circuits made such practices as a bit slice approach necessary. Instead of processing all of a long word on one integrated circuit, multiple circuits in parallel processed subsets of each data word. While this required extra logic to handle, for example, carry and overflow within each slice, the result was a system that could handle, for example, 3. With the ability to put large numbers of transistors on one chip, it becomes feasible to integrate memory on the same die as the processor. This CPU cache has the advantage of faster access than off- chip memory, and increases the processing speed of the system for many applications. Processor clock frequency has increased more rapidly than external memory speed, except in the recent past.
Several specialized processing devices have followed from the technology: A digital signal processor (DSP) is specialized for signal processing. Graphics processing units (GPUs) are processors designed primarily for realtime rendering of 3. D images. They may be fixed function (as was more common in the 1. Interview Questions And Answers Networking Pdf Free Download more.
With the continuing rise of GPGPU, GPUs are evolving into increasingly general purpose stream processors (running compute shaders), whilst retaining hardware assist for rasterizing, but still differ from CPUs in that they are optimized for throughput over latency, and are not suitable for running application or OS code. Other specialized units exist for video processing and machine vision.
Microcontrollers integrate a microprocessor with peripheral devices in embedded systems. These tend to have different tradeoffs compared to CPUs. Modern microprocessors go into low power states when possible. This creates a delicate balance between software, hardware and use patterns, plus costs. These include large and small household appliances, cars (and their accessory equipment units), car keys, tools and test instruments, toys, light switches/dimmers and electrical circuit breakers, smoke alarms, battery packs, and hi- fi audio/visual components (from DVD players to phonograph turntables). Such products as cellular telephones, DVD video system and HDTV broadcast systems fundamentally require consumer devices with powerful, low- cost, microprocessors.
Increasingly stringent pollution control standards effectively require automobile manufacturers to use microprocessor engine management systems, to allow optimal control of emissions over widely varying operating conditions of an automobile. Alternative Free Software To Winzip Freeware. Non- programmable controls would require complex, bulky, or costly implementation to achieve the results possible with a microprocessor. A microprocessor control program (embedded software) can be easily tailored to different needs of a product line, allowing upgrades in performance with minimal redesign of the product. Different features can be implemented in different models of a product line at negligible production cost.
Microprocessor control of a system can provide control strategies that would be impractical to implement using electromechanical controls or purpose- built electronic controls. For example, an engine control system in an automobile can adjust ignition timing based on engine speed, load on the engine, ambient temperature, and any observed tendency for knocking—allowing an automobile to operate on a range of fuel grades. History. General- purpose microprocessors in personal computers are used for computation, text editing, multimedia display, and communication over the Internet.
Many more microprocessors are part of embedded systems, providing digital control over myriad objects from appliances to automobiles to cellular phones and industrial process control. The first use of the term . Building on an earlier Busicom design from 1. Intel introduced the first commercial microprocessor, the 4- bit. Intel 4. 00. 4, in 1. Building on 8- bit arithmetic logic units (3. Fairchild, in 1. 96.
Lee Boysel created the Four- Phase Systems Inc. AL- 1 an 8- bit CPU slice that was expandable to 3. In 1. 97. 0, Steve Geller and Ray Holt of Garrett Ai. Research designed the MP9. F- 1. 4A Central Air Data Computer on six metal- gate chips fabricated by AMI.
During the 1. 96. ICs—each containing from tens of transistors to a few hundred.
These were placed and soldered onto printed circuit boards, and often multiple boards were interconnected in a chassis. A large number of discrete logic gates uses more electrical power—and therefore produces more heat—than a more integrated design with fewer ICs. The distance that signals have to travel between ICs on the boards limits a computer's operating system speed.
In the NASA Apollo space missions to the moon in the 1. It used wire wrap circuit boards whose only logic elements were three- input NOR gates. Other embedded uses of 4- bit and 8- bit microprocessors, such as terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc., followed soon after. Affordable 8- bit microprocessors with 1. Since the early 1. Moore's law; this originally suggested that the number of components that can be fitted onto a chip doubles every year.
With present technology, it is actually every two years. Arguably, Four- Phase Systems AL1 microprocessor was also delivered in 1. Intel 4. 00. 4 (1.
Busicom's original design called for a programmable chip set consisting of seven different chips. Three of the chips were to make a special- purpose CPU with its program stored in ROM and its data stored in shift register read- write memory. Ted Hoff, the Intel engineer assigned to evaluate the project, believed the Busicom design could be simplified by using dynamic RAM storage for data, rather than shift register memory, and a more traditional general- purpose CPU architecture. Hoff came up with a four- chip architectural proposal: a ROM chip for storing the programs, a dynamic RAM chip for storing data, a simple I/O device and a 4- bit central processing unit (CPU). Although not a chip designer, he felt the CPU could be integrated into a single chip, but as he lacked the technical know- how the idea remained just a wish for the time being. In April 1. 97. 0, Intel hired Italian- born engineer Federico Faggin as project leader, a move that ultimately made the single- chip CPU final design a reality (Shima meanwhile designed the Busicom calculator firmware and assisted Faggin during the first six months of the implementation). Faggin, who originally developed the silicon gate technology (SGT) in 1.
Fairchild Semiconductor. Since SGT was his very own invention, Faggin also used it to create his new methodology for random logic design that made it possible to implement a single- chip CPU with the proper speed, power dissipation and cost. The manager of Intel's MOS Design Department was Leslie L. Production units of the 4.
Busicom in March 1. The design was complete by 1. MOS- based chipset as the core CPU.